Information Technology in Healthcare Essay

Information technology has undoubtedly played important role of transforming the operation, management and the overall performance of many organizations. Similarly, it’s expected that information technology would show more or less same impact of results in the healthcare organizations. That is, the employment of IT system in the provision of health care services will mitigate the quality of service provision in the industry. Generally, the term â€Å"quality† is used not in its simplest form but has been used in its complex form, which is primarily meant to incorporate improvement of the functioning of the different healthcare departments together with the affiliated organizations which form part or participate in one way or another in the process of delivering health care service (Berg, 2001). Despite the fact that there has been increased investment in the healthcare industry, recent research has shown that the consumption of IT services/products is far much less in the healthcare industry as compared with the consumption rate of organizations in other sectors. Moreover, the large world population in developed countries or states like in the UK, USA among others access to high-quality healthcare services. While it’s known that not all individuals in the developed nations are well up, the poor and the middle class group experience a lot of obstacles as they endeavor to access healthcare services and their related products such as acquisition of healthcare insurance cover and payment of hospital bills. With the low consumption rate of the IT services by the healthcare organizations in most developed nations, this has led to provisions of meager services to the poor, but it’s postulated changing to intensive IT consumption would mitigate the situation (Fournier, 2003). Significance of Using EMR system There are several reasons for the embracing of IT systems in the healthcare industry. Depending on different perspective of the focus, the use IT system has been used to bring an evolution in the healthcare provision. Like in other industries dealing with provisions of services and products different from those of healthcare industry, the implementation of IT services in the healthcare sector is aimed at bringing an evolution both in the performance and quality of the services delivered to the consumers. For the last two or three decades back, many organizations have put more efforts in the funding of healthcare service provision, in order to have a change from the traditional record keeping practices. The adoption of the E-recording has thus been viewed as major step towards achieving a greater improvement in the healthcare overall performance. The consumption of IT services though is at low rates, the benefit accrued from the few ways in which it has been absorbed is enormous. In the area of medical records and record keeping, healthcare industry is adopting to the IT system to solve the problem of complexity in their system. First and foremost, the utilization of IT systems in medical record and recording reduces the time of production, spaces and transfer duration, thus leading to overall decrease in the expenditure cost of the record management (Berg, 2001). Facility evaluation The EMR facility is a sophisticated instrument which comprises of different parts for the accomplishment of the recording and storage of healthcare data and information. The equipment’s components include both computer hardware as well as software that support its data processing, storage operations and management. The major physical parts of the facility are the CPU together with its accessory components, while the non-physical component included the operating software and the special EMR software, which permit the performance of multiples tasks of healthcare. The special software is an advanced one which enables data entry through use of clicks, reducing the amount of keyboard typing. This means that the EMR facility supports the input of enormous data into the healthcare records with ease. The advanced software not only wires information in the word formats but it also supports the use of the imagery or photographic works, meaning that it’s a complete storage system of healthcare information. Cost of EMR system The EMR system is a model that occupies the least space in data storage systems. Though it has a multi-task purpose, the costs perhaps is at moderate rate. EMR costs are computed from the various variables or components which are needed in the implementation of the system within an organization. The costs of implementing EMR are identified in two classes, viz the purchasing and installation system cost and the maintenance cost. Usually, prior to the installation of the EMR system, the CPU and computer accessories must be purchased. Additionally, the clinicians and physician are without the knowledge of developing the superior software which allows the carrying out of the various functions of data storage and processing. Currently, the prices of a computer range from $ 7000 to &7500, while the software prices are estimated in the range of $`1000 to $1500 which are inclusive of the license charges. The grant installation expenses of the hardware and the software within the healthcare premise is approximated at $ 3500, but this quote is not inclusive of the implementation expenses which incorporates the costs incurred during the adoption of the new systems. A part from the equipment and software costs, other indirect expenses are incurred in the courses of running the systems: the maintenance costs which are at about $ 2000 per annum (Fournier, 2003). Regulation implications The utilization of the EMR systems in hospitals will have great impacts on the regulation and management of information within the healthcare provider organizations. Among the anticipated outcomes is that the use of this system would save time taken in retrieving patient’s information as well as hasten transferring of the information to any other organization or party where it’s needed. By doing so, both insurance organizations and organizations acting as referral healthcare services providers will have broader based of the assessment the patient’s health progress. While this system employed Electronic signatures that are unique, it’s a practice that reduces the risks associated with the heavy use of personalized signatures that can change with time or maybe forgotten. Barriers to EMR systems As revealed in a number of healthcare organization that have endeavored to install the new EMR system in their organization, there are several challenges are generally faced by firms implementing the system. According to the disclosed information, the initial outlay or capital is extremely high to be met within the current budget on healthcare development. The lean budgetary range bars the purchase of crucial and basic equipments such as power backups to ensure data inputs and output operations are not halted due blackouts or brown out that adversely affect the quality of service delivery. Considering that most have workers have been used to the old system of paper work, it’s undoubtedly overt that most of them will be disturbed of the implementation of the system (Miller, 2004). The employment of EMR system mean that much work would be accomplished by a few clinicians and physician workers, a case that actually acts as a threat to job security for some of the employees. To take the full benefits of the systems, it’s very important for the training of the staffs, particularly to empower them in the use of installed system. This calls for the payment of the training service from external organization/firms as the organization has got no training personnel with the required knowledge, experience and proficient of the installed system. The hiring of the new trainers is not ease as their cost falls out of the current budget. The handling of the new system of EMR also demands the use of shared devices such as serves, which implies that the company would have to hire additional staff to maintain the networks and the servers. Fraud and waste issues The implementation of the EMR systems within the organization has the ability of curbing certain problems experienced in the course of management and activity accomplishment. Usually, most of the organization depending on the traditional paper work recording depicted a lot of movements from one place to another. This indicates poor integration or communication between individuals at different departments. Sometimes, this increases the duration of the patient’s stay within the healthcare facility. Thus, the employment of the EMR system reduces the waste of healthcare facilities by eliminating or reducing many personnel movements, meanwhile leading to improvement on patient’s safety and general service delivery. Though EMR systems is appealing way of improving the clinicians and physicians work effectiveness, high risks on privacy and confidence are associated with this kind of system. System hacking together with ease of reproducing the data in this system acts as the greatest threat to the use of the methodology (Miller, 2004) EMR Implementation The following are steps of implementing an EMR system: †¢ Selection of the most suitable EMR to be adopted by the organization †¢ Compose a lead team to campaign for the EMR system †¢ Generate an implementation plan †¢ List/choosing the required equipments and software †¢ Training the organization’s staffs †¢ Select security provider to the data/ information sites †¢ Input the selected data of interest Timeline The first day will be the discussion on the redundancy experienced within the organizations so as to determine the appropriate EMR system. The second day will be formation of a steering team that would work together towards ensuring success of the project. Third will be generation of a list of items: equipments and software that would be used. Then, this will be followed by the installation of the system that would take a bout a week. This will run concurrently with the training of the staff members on the new system though the training will be extended by another week for practical skill acquisition.

Overpopulation destroying the environment Essay

â€Å"The destruction of the natural world we see across the globe today is ‘fallout’ from the human population explosion that has occurred over the course of the last 50 years. The world is at a critical juncture. While birth rates have fallen in many countries and regions, demographic momentum means we are now adding a record number of people to the world’s population every year. At current birth rates the population of the world will double in the next 50 years. If that happens, countless creatures already pushed to the edge, may pass into extinction. † The new century is marked by alarming environmental threats such water shortages, soil exhaustion, loss of forests, air and water pollution in many parts of the world. The challenge to developed countries is to raise the people’s standard of living without sacrificing the environment. Most developed economies currently consume resources much faster than they can regenerate. This is caused by rapid population growth. The bigger the population is, the bigger the demand for food and water. It was also noted that the more populous the place is, the more waste is produced. The exponential growth in the earth’s population as well as the associated developments resulted in the overcrowding of vulnerable areas thus the occurrence of extreme natural disasters. In many countries the number of births is more than the number of deaths causing overpopulation. Environment is getting worse in the last decade over 12 million people each year were killed due to unclean water and nearly 3 million were killed due to air pollution. Heavy metals and other contaminants also cause widespread health problems. According to studies conducted by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, the food supplies produced are no longer enough to meet the need in 64 countries. Population pressures have degraded some 2 billion hectares of arable land — an area the size of Canada and the U. S. The supply of freshwater is finite, but demand is soaring as population grows. By 2025, when world population is projected to be 8 billion, 48 countries containing 3 billion people will face shortages. Currently, 434 million people face either water stress or scarcity. Depending on future rates of population growth, between 2. 6 billion and 3. billion people may be living in either water-scarce or water-stressed conditions by 2025. For tens of millions of people in the Middle East and in much of Africa today, the lack of available fresh water is a chronic concern that is growing more acute and more widespread. The problem is worse than it often appears on the ground, because much of the fresh water now used in water-scarce regions comes from deep aquifers that are not being refreshed by the natural water cycle. In most of the countries where water shortage is severe and worsening, high rates of population growth exacerbate the declining availability of renewable fresh water. While 25 countries currently experience either water stress or scarcity, between 36 and 40 countries are projected to face similar conditions by 2025 Ocean fisheries are being overexploited, and fish catches are down due to high population densities and urban development. Nearly half of the world’s original forest cover has been lost, and each year another 16 million hectares are cut, bulldozed, or burned. Forests provide over US$400 billion to the world economy annually and are vital to maintaining healthy ecosystems. Yet, current demand for forest products may exceed the limit of sustainable consumption by 25%. Human activities are pushing many thousands of plant and animal species into extinction. Two of every three species is estimated to be in decline. The earth’s surface is warming due to greenhouse gas emissions, largely from burning fossil fuels. If the global temperature rises as projected, sea levels would rise by several meters, causing widespread flooding as seen in the last few years in different parts of the world especially Asia. Global warming also could cause droughts and disrupt agriculture. How people preserve or abuse the environment could largely determine whether living standards improve or deteriorate. Growing human numbers, urban expansion, and resource exploitation do not bode well for the future. Without practicing sustainable development, humanity faces a deteriorating environment and may even invite ecological disaster. Many steps toward sustainability can be taken today. These include: using energy more efficiently, managing cities better, phasing out subsidies that encourage waste but the best way to sustainability is to stabilize the population. Environmentalists and economists increasingly agree that efforts to protect the environment and to achieve better living standards can be closely linked and are mutually reinforcing. Slowing the increase in population, especially in the face of rising per capita demand for natural resources, can take pressure off the environment and buy time to improve living standards on a sustainable basis. Changes in population size, age, and distribution affect issues ranging from food security to climate change. Population variables interact with consumption patterns, technologies, and political and economic structures to influence environmental change. This interaction helps explain why environmental conditions can deteriorate even as the growth of population slows. Despite slowing growth, world population still gains nearly 80 million people each year, parceling land, fresh water, and other finite resources among more people. A new Germany is added annually, a new Los Angeles monthly. How this increase in population size affects specific environmental problems is impossible to say precisely. Too many factors interact, and much depends on the time frame under consideration. Obviously, trends such as the loss of half of the planet’s forests, the depletion of most of its major fisheries, and the alteration of its atmosphere and climate are closely related to the fact that human population expanded from mere millions in prehistoric times to nearly 6 billion today. There is an urgent call today to stabilize population in order to make sure that the generation after us will have enough to sustain them. We need to do everything in our power to conserve energy and resources. Overpopulation has a tremendous environmental impact caused by high consumption levels, environmental destruction, and poverty.

Using the SBAR Communication Technique Research Paper

Using the SBAR Communication Technique - Research Paper Example Though the solution may not be right, the fact that the situation is clearly defined can be of considerable assistance to those who will respond (Boaro, Fancott, Baker, Velji & Andreoli, 2010). It also seeks to establish optimal patient-safety guidelines that may be grouped into two broad categories. First, they may include factors that have to do with the interrelationships of status, profession and long-standing cultural traditions of mutual tension. The other factors have to do with human capabilities and limitations in the face of a challenge, its duration, demand level, and the intensity where continual precise attention, rapid analysis and decision-making are required. These objectives work towards addressing realistically broad sources of risk to safety and invitation to error which are inherent in human enterprises (Leonard, Graham & Bonacum, 2004). By looking at the situation, the speaker or the one reporting the on goings should understand what is happening with the patient and how the patient is responding to the current medication. It provides an opening sentiment that helps to identify the patient's problem and location in the case of a nurse calling the physician to assess the situation. The background part looks at the previous conditions, any outstanding information that the patient has been medicated for and any other piece of information that may be of help in the treatment or diagnosis (Boaro, Fancott, Baker, Velji & Andreoli, 2010). The aspect of assessment deals with what the nurse believes to be the problem and how the patient is currently responding to the medication. It also provides a chance to rule out some of the probable conditions based on the symptoms...These scenarios depict interactions between physicians and nurses where either of the professionals has seemingly blown a situation out of proportion. For better implementation, it is always beneficial for the management to incorporate successfully any intricate interdisciplinary te nsions that may be compromised during the implementation process. This will avoid having any representative from both sides defending their members in case they are depicted as poor communicators. It allows both representatives to view the situation as a teaching tool rather than the unfair depiction of a discipline. In addition to using this model in high-risk situations, several other areas may successfully utilize this in their communication. For instance, the senior leadership may use all kinds of reports. Therefore, increased use of this technique in an institution may inculcate it into the member’s response criteria. It also avoids the use of team decision-making processes since the required information may vary from one patient to the other. Thus, using SBAR helps to predict effectively the structure of communication between members and reduce errors through factual communication. The synergy of this model is experienced mostly when the leadership elaborates the rules to be followed and how each query will be handled.

Final Business Plan Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Final Business Plan Project - Essay Example It’s marketing strategy will focus on provision of a website for easy communication and a high tech system that provides support for gaining the necessary intelligence for security purposes. It will also involve the development of a security research center in which major threats will be studied and results employed in the improvement of services provided by the company. The company aims at starting with a total of 160 guards with 20 clients each absorbing 8 guards. These will have 4 on entry points of the premises and 4 patrolling within to increase efficiency of the services. Through these, better services are guaranteed in the guarding sector. The private investigations will be conducted by a team of 6 employees qualified in the field with the consultancy services a reserve of one of the partners Mr. Luther Graves that has experience in security related fields. Occasionally will Mr. Don provide consultancy services especially if there comes a client in need of aid in security IT systems. The company SecureIT deals with the provision of security guards to different business premises with the aim of boosting security in the wake of terrorist threats. It offers security guards, private investigations and consultancy services in relation to security and aiding different corporations handle their security needs effectively. The company is a startup made up of a partnership between two partners that hold experience in the field of security with one Mr. Don Lawson having experience in security IT systems and the other Mr. Luther Graves holding experience in the policing field having worked with a security firm for over twenty years. SecureIt aims at providing quality security guards and consulting services with a demonstrated alertness, responsiveness, due diligence in approaching work or any threats and investigative needs, accurate judgment and a culture of quality in service delivery. SecureIt aims at standing at the global

Formal Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Formal Analysis - Essay Example Nevertheless, he also paid attention to other living on the peripheral of the world. Of particular concerns were Allerinas seen in his dances, resting, or perhaps performing. From this group, Edgar learned much and was a impressed by the dancing. In this particular sculpture, it speaks volume about the Spanish Dance, at that time. The pose and line illustrate the moves of the dance. Edgar Degas’ sculpture stands out among the art mainstream of 19th century French sculpture. He did not have any intentions of making public monuments and it was until his death that most of his sculpture were casted and displayed in national museums. Most of his sculptures were modeled using wax to maintain an acute pose. One of his works that appeared in public limelight is â€Å"Little Dancer of14 years† though it was faced with criticism and never did he again publicly exhibit his work. The rest of his works remained private; similar to the sketches and drawings on small range of subjects that seemed to fascinate him (Guggenheim 2015). The sculpture on human figure often repeated the same subject with varying composition or change of muscular tension with the body. Edgar had a ready source of inspiration from ballet dancers of the Opera, from Paris. Others sculpture recorded images of women in nudity when washing and drying their body. Edgar Degas was born in 1843 from an affluent banking family and had his education in the classics including Greek, Latin and ancient history in Paris. His father realized his son artistic gift and helped him develop his career by often taking him to museums. Through many interactions, Edgar started to develop his artistic skills. He trained in Louis Lamothe studio who taught him on traditional academics style with a major concern in line and insistence on the draftsmanship. One of his trips in Italy, he was attracted to the frescoes he saw there and made sketches and drawing about them in his notebook. Upon Edgars’ death

Essential Elements of a Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Essential Elements of a Crime - Essay Example Under our scenario, it is evident that conduct of Stephen of punching Vincent in the stomach is, the actus reus of battery. Battery in itself is unlawful taking into consideration that it is often meant at hurting the other party intentionally. In other words, Stephens’s unlawful offensive physical contact against Vincent is tantamount to a criminal offence. Commission acts is a significant proof for the actus reus of a crime. The case at hand can also be examined from causation point of view whereby action of the defendant resulted on a particular consequence. For instance, it can be established that Stephen’s act of punching Vincent was the major cause of Vincent’s illness. This clearly proves that in case a definition of the actus reus calls for a proof of an occurrence of a particular consequences then the prosecutor carries the responsibility of proving that the defendant’s conduct directly caused the consequences. For instance, if the prosecutor beli eves that Stephen conduct of battery was the reasonable cause of Vincent death then he/she has to prove this assertion. A conduct in criminal law does not need to be a commission only but also omission. V asserts that Clarkson (2005: 102) Omission refers to failure to take a positive action and consequently results in injury. Under general common law not only in the United Kingdom but also in other countries practicing common law, no individual can be held criminally liable for an act of omission. However, there are exceptions to omission rule such as in cases where there is: statutory duty, contractual obligation, voluntary assumption of responsibility, duty due to defendants previous conduct, and public duty. Failure to act and or respond positively to the above exceptions can result to committing actus reus by omission. In our scenario Stephen was guilty of committing the actus reus of omission. This claim can be justified by the fact that he failed respond to his prior act of ca using bodily harm to Vincent and consequently led to victim’s death. Under the common law defendant is often expected to correct a dangerous situation, which he/she is directly responsible for its occurrence (Emanuel, 2007: 95). Instead of helping Vincent who was, gasping for air on the floor Stephen just chose to run away even after punching him. Meanwhile Jim cannot be held criminally liable for committing actus reus of omission taking into consideration that he was under any statutory or contractual duty to help Vincent and there his inaction cannot attract any penalty under common law. Task 2: principles of novus actus interveniens and the ‘egg shell rule’ Principle of novus actus interveniens is widely used in the context of causation and it is used to explain interference with the chain of causation or to mean 'a new intervening act' (Hodgson, & Lewthwaite, 2007: 61). The chain of causation in criminal law refers to the series of events triggered by the def endant that leads to a particular event and consequent injury. For instance, it can be established through a post-mortem that a serious stab wounds is the major cause of a victim’s death. The relationship between a guilty action and its consequences is an important premise for establishing guilt and final liability not only in

Why are they there; Incarceration Rates Research Paper

Why are they there; Incarceration Rates - Research Paper Example States such as Iowa, Arkansas, West Virginia, and Illinois have had an increasing number of incarcerations. The South holds historical record high rates of incarceration, and Louisiana tops in sentencing criminals in jail. The less educated Blacks and Hispanics have a higher incarceration rates than their white counterparts. The incarceration rates for the men of African American descent have been increasing. In 2010, the rate of the blacks aged between twenty-five and twenty-nine years without a high school diploma was about thirty-five percent (Gao, 2014). In contrast, the rate of the whites with the same level of education and age bracket was less than seven percent of all the inmates. Notably, the likelihood of the black men to face incarceration was approximately six times that of the white counterparts in 2010. The recent statistics indicate that the incarceration rates for the White Non-Hispanic and Black non-Hispanic was 454, 100 and 526, 000 (DrugWarFacts.org). The same statistics indicate that the incarcerated Hispanic men were 314, 600 of the total 1, 412, 745 male incarcerations. Carson (2014) asserts that the number of the persons in the correctional institutions in 2013 increased by 4,300 from that of 2012. The non-Hispanic blacks constituted approximately 37 percent of the total inmates i n 2013 (Carson, 2014). The national data shows that the rate of incarceration was higher for the Black Americans than the whites. Rosich (2007) contends there are high chances to incarcerate the young blacks. Louisiana has the highest number of the incarcerations according to the statistics of 2013. In 2012, approximately 1,673 were in the correctional institutions in Louisiana (Carson, 2014). Similarly, Louisiana recorded 1,633 of inmates. Likewise, Mississippi had 1,370 and 1,328 incarcerations in 2012 and 2013 respectively (Carson, 2014). The rate of incarcerations for Oklahoma and Texas were 1,191and

Radio and mobile communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Radio and mobile communication - Essay Example tems developed in the first generation category were incompatible with one another for the reason that all they were operating at different frequencies. For this reason, mobile users had to change their mobiles when they moved to different countries. Since this generation was based on FDMA standard that why it supported only limited roaming and capacity. Hence, in order to deal with the problems of 1st generation, a new generation of mobile computing evolved in the 1990s known as 2nd generation of mobile networks (Joshi, 2012; Patil, et al., 2012). The design process of 1st generation cellular networks started in 1980 but the actual implementations of these networks appeared in early 1991 and continued until the 2nd generation appeared. Basically, this generation included the majority of currently used ubiquitous cellular networks. As compared to 1st generation networks, 2nd generation networks depended completely on analog FM and FDMA. Some of the well-known techniques used by 2G standards included Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and digital modulation formats with Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). These systems are normally known as Personal Communications Service (PCS) in the United States. In this scenario, three TDMA standards (GSM, IS-136, and PDC) and one CDMA standard (IS-95) are believed to be the well-known standards of 2G networks (Joshi, 2012; Patil, et al., 2012). One of the major problems with 2G technologies was that it used circuit-switched data modems for this reason data users were limited to a single circuit-switched voice station. As a result, data transfer rate reduced to a very low rate. In fact, the majority of 2G networks supported a data transfer rate of 10 Kbps for all kinds of users. In this scenario, 2G networks were unable to support sophisticated short messaging capabilities and effective Internet browsing and. Short Messaging Service (SMS) is a popular feature of GSM. Thus, in order to help 2G standards overcome

Six Zigma methology and how the consultant can use it during Essay

Six Zigma methology and how the consultant can use it during consulting process - Essay Example The task for the consultants is extremely challenging because the oppurtunities for defects (OFD) in the automobiles is extremely high. While the original aim of Six Sigma was focused on the manufacturing processes, today marketing, billing, purchasing and invoicing functions are also advised by consultants which help to constantly minimize errors and improve efficiency. Six Sigma methodology defines, measures, analyzes, improves and controls (DMAIC) the entire improvement process and there are teams formed to oversee the improvement process (Heuring, 2004). Sigma representing standard deviation has evolved from a measurement scale to a far reaching methodology to drive business improvement. The sigma level is the benchmark for the ability of a process to accomplish the demanded requirements (Pfeifer, Reissiger & Canales, 2004). There are so many oppurtunities to apply the Six Sigma that companies find it difficult to decide which project to tackle. Consultants do not find it easy to make Six Sigma work through an organization. If the employees are discontented, then success with Six Sigma cannot be achieved. Six Sigma strategy places emphasis on achieving quantifiable and measurable financial returns to the bottom line of an organization (Antony, 2004). It also clarifies that to be successful there has to be strong and passionate leadership. Six Sigma methodology integrates the human and the process elements of improvement. The human elements include the culture change, customer focus, belt system and infrastructure while the process includes process management, statistical analysis of data, and measurement system analysis. The tools and techniques for fixing the problems are utilized in a sequential and disciplined manner. The difference in the success and failure of the Six Sigma project depends on how, where, and when the tools are applied. Six Sigma creates an

The Differences Between Romanticism and Neoclassicism Essay

The Differences Between Romanticism and Neoclassicism - Essay Example This essay stresses that Neoclassicism in the arts, as the name indicates, is inclined on reverting to Hellenistic art styles characterized by symmetry; calmness and stillness; importance of social and political concerns; discipline and control; conformity and rationality. This art movement was the result of the renewed interest and the sense of giving importance to classical art. These characteristics and the definition of Romanticism and Neoclassicism classify the major differences between the two art movements. These differences substantiate that these art movements are conflicting during the time these two art styles emerged in the art scene. Neoclassicism imposes restraint and conformity while Romanticism breaks free from the constraints of tradition and promoted freedom in conveying personal views and emotions. Moreover, Neoclassicism was rearing towards the society and its concerns such as politics while Romanticism favors idiosyncrasy. According to the discussion the differences of Romanticism and Neoclassicism is evident in the works of Romantic painter Eugene Delacroix and Neoclassical painter Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres particularly their portrait of violinist Niccolo Paganini. Ingres’ depiction of Paganini shows the violinist in a very formal and stiff pose, which is very much opposite to Delacroix’s portrayal of the violinist showing Paganini while playing the violin. The striking contrasts between Ingres’ Paganini and Delacroix’s version clearly differentiates the two art styles and best represents the artworks of the two art movements. These opposing two art movements resulted from the events during that period and compelled by some prominent figures in the society and discoveries in well-known places at that time. Influences manifest in the works of artists belonging to Romanticism and Neoclassicism.

Integrative Response on Festivals Essay Example for Free

Integrative Response on Festivals Essay The organization of a festival brings a positive economic impact on the community. Not only does the community as a whole benefit from the economic effect but also the individuals gain significantly from the organization of festivals. These effects are more pronounced as the beneficial effects get replicated. A festival is a usually a series of cultural events, celebrations or entertainment organized by an association, group, person or a company. Included in these are concerts, carnivals, exhibitions or even a circus. The maximum number of days usually limited to 15 days. Shorter festivals like many church festivals are less than 3 days. From another standpoint, festival is a period of time that is set aside for feasting or celebration. On the other hand festivals are an organized series of acts and performances, say we have a film festival. Usually festivals have the involvement of the local community and are focused on a theme. It may be an annual event like the annual camping event that is held near Sydney every Easter. Usually, these events attract a number of visitors to the venue; this can range from mere 150 to 5,000. There are some unusual festivals also like the Luton Festival of Transport that attracts 1100 classic cars, buses, bikes and other interesting road vehicles. The organization of festivals brings significant economic benefits to the local community. The benefits to the local community occur because of the spending that is done by the organizers themselves and the visitors to the area. From the macroeconomic perspective the GDP of the area goes up and so also the tax collection from the community. Moreover, these festivals help create jobs and bring in additional income by way of wages and salaries. There are several festivals that have operating expenditures of over $1million and have a total attendance that is more than 5 times the strength of the local community. There are different sources of funding, some have the backing of government agencies, some have the backing of non-government agencies and some are entirely sponsored by corporations. These funds help the economy. The federal government, the local government and the municipality share the increase in taxes. The increase in GDP usually provides a direct boost to restaurants, recreation and accommodation. Moreover, the persons or groups that are involved in the cultural, recreation and community events get a boost. Examples of festivals that have brought significant economic benefits to their communities are The Blue Skies Music Festival (Clarendon), Mudcat Festival (Dunnville) and Olde Sandwich Towne Festival (Windsor). Let us take the microeconomic perspective of the organization of festivals. Most of the hotels in the area often turn away potential bookings. What does this mean? This means that there is an increase in demand for hotel bookings. There is an outward shift in the demand curve. At the same rates, more hotel bookings are demanded during festival periods. Some hotels anticipating increased demand raise the room rates. In other words there is an overall increase in the revenues for the hotels. Similarly, there is an increase in the demand for local transport and other services. This increase in demand is not just limited to those industries that are directly related to the festivals. When the performers, organizers or journalists experience increased income, then in accordance to their marginal propensity to consume their consumption also increases. This creates the multiplier effect of new expenditure and income (Raj. R, 2003). To sum, festivals invigorate the economy of the community. They benefit businesses, government and individuals. Festivals bring in a flow of funds and this removes the ennui of the local economy. Reference: Raj. R, 2003, Impact of Festivals on Cultural Tourism, retrieved on: January 13, 2007, from: www. nottingham. ac. uk/ttri/pdf/conference/raj%20razaq. pdf

Crossing to Safety and The Sweet Hereafter Essay Example for Free

Crossing to Safety and The Sweet Hereafter Essay The long summer has led me to produce a few thoughts on the assigned summer reading. While reading the books The Sweet Hereafter and Crossing to Safety I have discovered the importance of first person. By comparing the books I have found how the first person viewpoint relates to the characters, the action, and how the novels differ by author in their style of writing. The Sweet Hereafter has an interesting approach to sending us on a journey through the story. By having four narrators we get to see all the angles around the main event. One narration in particular, Billy Ansel, gives us an eye witness account of the featured action in the novel. The swerve off the road to the right, the skid, the smashing of the guard rail and the snow bank; and then the tilted angled plummet down the embankment to the sand pit, where, moving fast and somehow still upright, the bus slid across the ice to the far side; and then the ice letting go and the rear half of the yellow bus being swallowed at once by the freezing blue green water. Here we see how the first person can be used for action sequences. Because Billy Ansel was the only eyewitness, it is imperative that Russell Banks puts in his account in his own words, thoughts and feelings. Using the first person is one way to depict action, but it is also an efficient way to describe characters. Wallace Stegner takes a drastically different approach to his novel Crossing to Safety. The book is primarily told through the eyes of Larry Morgan. Throughout the book we get Larrys thoughts and feelings on events and happenings from beginning to end. Wallace Stegner uses Larrys character to describe the other characters and issues. Charity I was prepared for more or less-the fine narrow head, the drawn back hair, the vivid face, the greetings that managed to be excitedly personal even while she was dividing them among eight of us. but right then, in her doorway, crying greeting, she looked simply tall, beautiful, exotic and exuberant. These excerpts are a good example of Stegners use of the first person to describe a character as Larry saw it. Wallace does a good job of making sure not to overindulge the reader with pointless details and leaves the description short and sweet. Banks and Stegner both use the first person to tell their tales, but it is evident that their traits and s tyles vary significantly. Banks and Stegner have almost two completely different approaches to their novels. Russel Banks broke his story into four character chapters where we see one angle on the tragedy and surrounding events. By doing so, Banks invokes a different feeling from the book. Russell makes it seem as if the characters are actually talking to the reader, as if they were right across from you telling the story. The use of dialect and vocabulary also give the story a personal touch, to continue the exclusive feeling. Wallace Stegner uses one main character to take us through the book, inserting thoughts and dialogue when necessary. Wallace uses the first person viewpoint very differently than Banks. While reading Crossing to Safety it emits the feeling that the reader is actually there in the scene, watching it all take place as the story goes on. Stegner makes the book feel more like a movie than a story because of his vast descriptiveness in every scene and thought. Wallace makes the story flow s lowly building to climax whereas Banks has short thoughts with a peak at every turn of the page. The Sweet Hereafter and Crossing to Safety are both very-well written books and deserve the credit they get. While both books encompass the first person point of view, it all comes down to the personal choice of the reader, the literary connoisseur. Works Cited Stegner, Wallace. Crossing to Safety. New York, 1987. Banks, Russell. The Sweet Hereafter. New York, NY, 1991.

Historical People and Events

Historical People and Events Joan of Arc Joan of Arc is a national heroine of France honored and respected by everyone. She was an illiterate peasant girl who rose to the ranks of leading French armies to victory against England until her capture when she was only 19 years old. She was executed as a heretic in a politically motivated trial. Twenty four years later the Catholic Church declared her innocence and she was canonized as a saint in 1920. She was born in a time when France and England were at war. The Armagnacs and the Burgundians were two French factions at war with each other. By 1484 England was occupying Northern France. The English began a siege of Orleans. Her parents were Jacques dArc and Isabelle Rome. Her father was a farmer and a minor village official. She got her first visions at the age of 12 where St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret told her to expel the English. She obtained an interview with the royal French court where she predicted about military reverses of the English near Orleans. She was responsible for pursuing an aggressive offensive strategy by the French army in the siege of Orleans. The defeat of English led to the capture of Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire, Beaugency and annihilated the English army at the battle of Patay. A truce was signed between the two French factions following the arrival of the French army at Reims. The agreement was broken by Duke Philip. A French advance towards Paris was put off after an order to withdraw. Joan was captured on May 1430 following a skirmish with the English. She was put on trial for heresy in a politically motivated trial. She had supported the other side in France. She was executed for heresy. The inquisitors who interviewed her could not find any evidence of heresy and were convinced of her innocent. The priests who had put her on trial were forced and intimidated by the English government to pronounce heresy. Joan of Arc is honored and revered as a heroine throughout her life and beyond. The French military was inspir ed by her use of artillery and frontal tactics in warfare. Legends have survived about her legacy. The best known is that she did not feel pain during her execution. She is also believed to have died peacefully. She rose to prominence from an illiterate peasant girl to an inspiration for the French military. She gave hope to a discredited regime and inspired the French people to fight a popular war of national liberation. Joan of Arc expelled women from the French army and did not believe in feminism. She has been a political symbol ever since her death. The Vichy government, French resistance, liberals, conservatives, etc have all used her for their political purposes. Many people have studied about the religious visions of Joan. Most people believe in the sincerity of her faith. They consider it to be divine inspiration. Documents which detail about her visions are vague and possibly some fabrications have been added. Some researchers have tried to explain her visions in the form of neurological or psychiatric terms. This view has been opposed by many historians on grounds that hallucinations and hearing voices does not necessarily point to mental illness. Further a person with such lifestyle like Joan would have found it hard to maintain if she had a serious disease. The court of King Charles VII was highly skeptical and shrewd with regards to mental illness. His own father suffered from insanity and under him France began a long decline. Her boldness and physical rigor of her military career counters the theory that she suffered from any cognitive impairment. Joan of Arc remains a popular heroine and political symbol in France. She passionately pursued a national war of liberation and inspired the French to regain hope. She was sincere in faith. Her sincerity and legacy remain stronger than ever even after her death more than five hundred years ago. Johannes Gutenberg Gutenberg was a German Printer, and Pioneer in the use of movable type, he was sometimes identified as the first European to print with hand-set type cast and molds. Although he was not the only person working on the printing press, he was considered to be the main part of it. Gutenbergs name does not appear on any of the works attributed to him, but historical records have given evidence that he is indeed the one who printed them. Johannes Gutenberg was born in 1397. He was born into a noble family in the city of Mainz, a mining town, in Southern Germany. His father was Friele Gansfleisch, his mother was Else Wyrich. His early training was as a goldsmith and an inventor. In 1428, he moved to Strasbourg for political reasons. He remained there for over twenty years. It was in Strasbourg that he made his first experiments with movable type. Gutenberg had the idea of modernizing techniques of metalworking, such as casting, punch-cutting, and stamping, for the mass production of books. Gutenberg became more and more intrigued by these subjects, which led to further experiments with movable type. He started to experiment with metal molds, alloys, special presses, and oil based inks. Little did he know that this experimentation, with a little increased work, would remain the main type of printing until the late twentieth century. In 1438 Gutenberg entered into a partnership with Andreas Dritzehn to conduct experiments in printing. Gutenberg taught Dritzehn about what he had learned dealing with movable type. In about 1450 Gutenberg returned to Mainz, where he formed yet another partnership with a German merchant and a money lender by the name of Johann Fust. With the money that he borrowed from Fust, Gutenberg was able to open up a press where he did additional research and experiments with movable type. It was sometime between 1450 and 1456 that Gutenberg set to work, and completed, a forty- two line Bible (it was 42 lines per page). The bible was referred to as th e Gutenberg Bible, also known as the Mazarine Bible, or the 42-lined bible. Today there is only 47 extant copies, the most widely known presently was acquired by the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Only two other perfect copies of the Gutenberg Bible are known to exist today. The Gutenberg Bible was widely known for its beauty and elegance. A German printer, Peter Schoffer, Fusts son-in-law, and Gutenbergs apprentice helped to print the work of the Bible. Gutenbergs main goal was to mechanically reproduce medieval liturgical manuscripts without taking away their color or design. In 1455 Fust demanded that Gutenberg repay the money that was invested in the business. This dispute resulted in a lawsuit in which Gutenberg abandoned his claims to his invention and gave up his stocks. Even though he had a dispute with Fust, Gutenberg continued his work with printing. During the years following the dispute and lawsuit Gutenberg printed several small but popular items such as calend ars, but in 1458 Gutenberg printed another bible, only this one was the 36 line Bible. Gutenberg began to re-establish his printing press company with the help of a man named Conrad Humery. At around 1460 Gutenberg was able to print the Missale speciale constantiense as well as the Catholicon. Gutenbergs press was made up of characters of equal height, and these characters were printed on hand-made paper. His press involved a mold that had the outlines of letters and other characters stamped into it. Letters of type could be produced quickly by pouring liquid metal into the pre-made molds. These stamped and molded letters were then put together to make pages of printing. Gutenbergs accomplishments with movable type made book production more economically possible, and easier to produce literature quicker. The new innovations in the printing press opened new possibilities for German literature. The printing press allowed an easier exchange of ideas throughout Europe and helped spread the ideas of the Renaissance. As more productions of literature occurred, more different languages were also printed out. Gutenbergs invention brought the printed word to a wider audience, altering history with its big impact on literacy and education. Before books were able to be printed with the printing press people had to believe what they heard from other people. They werent able to rely on what they read from history books or other sources of information. Before the printing press was invented, making books was a long and hard process, and the books that were produced were extremely costly. The printing press provided a practical and inexpensive way to produce literature. It was a particularly valuable invention, and it made a great contribution to the world. With the invention of the printing press reading and writing were no longer restricted to religious things, or to the rich. People soon learned to question the authority of the ruling class, which was also part of the spr ead of the Renaissance. The printing press sparked an enlightenment and widespread access and appreciation for classical art and literature. These new appreciations developed a new passion among people for artistic self expression. Without the printing press, the Renaissance may never have occurred. Queen Elizabeth I Elizabeths Childhood and Youth Elizabeth was born near London on Sept. 7, 1533. Her father was Henry VIII, bluff King Hal. Her mother was Anne Boleyn, the second of Henrys six wives. Henrys first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had only one surviving child, Mary. Henry wanted a male heir, so he asked the pope to annul the marriage. Because the pope refused, Henry broke away from the Roman Catholic church and set himself up as head of the church in England. Then he married Anne. He was disappointed that Annes child also was a girl. Before Elizabeth was 3 years old, he had her mother beheaded. Henry gave Elizabeth a house of her own in the country. He paid little attention to her, and her governess complained that the princess hath neither gown, nor kirtle, nor petticoat. Henry provided excellent tutors, however, and Elizabeth showed a love for learning. One of her tutors, Roger Ascham, wrote: Her perseverance is equal to that of a man, and her memory long keeps what it quickly picks up. Sh e talks French and Italian as well as she does English. When she writes Greek and Latin, nothing is more beautiful than her handwriting. She delights as much in music as she is skillful in it. Henrys third wife, Jane Seymour, gave birth to a son, Edward. Henry died when Edward was 10 years old, and the boy came to the throne as Edward VI. Elizabeth and Edward were both brought up in Henrys new church. Their half sister Mary was brought up a Roman Catholic. When Edward died in 1553, Mary became queen and at once made Catholicism the state religion. Mary suspected Elizabeth of plotting with the Protestants to gain the throne and had her imprisoned for two months in the Tower of London. When Mary died, there were two claimants to the throne. If Elizabeth did not succeed, the next heir was Mary Stuart of Scotland, a Catholic. Mary Stuart was about to be married to the dauphin Francis of France. If she won the throne of England, both Scotland and England would be joined to France. Philip II of Spain, though a Catholic, threw his influence on the side of Elizabeth because he was jealous of Frances power. Later the Spanish ambassador hinted to Elizabeth that she owed her throne to Philip. Elizabeth replied that she owed it to her people. She is very much wedded to her people, the ambassador wrote, and thinks as they do. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, she rode at once to London from her country home, traveling in a slow procession to give the people a chance to see her. Guns boomed, bells rang, and the people cheered her and scattered flowers in her path. At the beginning of her reign England was in despair. The country had been weakened by war and religious strife, and the treasury was empty. Spain and France were powerful, and both wanted to rule England. The people hoped their young queen would soon marry a strong man who would guide her. But Elizabeth at once took the government into her own hands; and, though she had many suitors and close friendships with several men, she steadfastly refused to marry. The young queen chose as her chief minister Sir William Cecil (Lord Burghley), who was cautious and conservative like herself. For 40 years he was her mainstay in both home and foreign affairs. Her favorite courtier was the charming and handsome Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. When she died at the age of 69, she was still called the Virgin Queen. By then rich and secure, England was enjoying its greatest literary period. English ships were sailing into all seas, and the island kingdom had begun to establish its position as a world leader. In religious matters Elizabeth steered a middle course between the extreme Protestants and the Catholics. She restored the Protestant service but retained many features of Catholicism, including bishops and archbishops. She hoped this compromise would produce unity in the state; but the Catholics, who formed a majority of her subjects, were not reconciled. From time to time some of them plotted with Spain or France to put Mary Stuart on the throne in place of Elizabeth. France and Spain were rivals, and Elizabeth was usually able to play one off against the other. She even used courtship as part of her diplomatic game. She refused to marry Philip II of Spain but held out hopes to more than one of his royal relatives when France seemed to threaten. Later, when Philip turned against England, Elizabeth encouraged French princes. To cut Scotlands ties with France, she gave secret help to the Scottish Presbyterians. She also aided the Protestant Netherlands when they revolted against Spain. Mary Stuart returned to Scotland in 1561 after the death of her husband, Francis, king of France. In 1568 she was compelled to flee across the English border to ask Elizabeths help. Elizabeth kept her a prisoner for 19 years. Finally Mary was accused of having a part in the so-called Babington plot to assassinate Elizabeth. Parliament demanded her execution. Elizabeth signed the warrant; and Mary Stuart was beheaded in 1587. In the last years of Elizabeths reign, Catholics were cruelly persecuted and many were put to death. Defeat of the Spanish Armada During the first 30 years of Elizabeths reign England was at peace. Commerce revived, and English ships were boldly venturing across the seas to the West Indies. There they came into conflict with Spain and Portugal, which owned and ruled the whole New World and claimed a monopoly of trade. English smugglers broke through the blockade and made huge profits by selling, in the West Indies, blacks they had seized in Africa. John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, and other English seamen also waylaid Spanish ships on their way home and seized their gold. Elizabeth aided the English privateers with ships and money and shared in their profits and stolen treasure. Philip II finally decided to put an end to these attacks by invading and conquering England. After years of preparation, Philip assembled a great fleet of his best and largest w arships, called by the Spanish the Armada (that is, fleet). In 1588 the Armada sailed into the English Channel. The English were waiting for them and at once put out to sea. Their ships were of newer design, smaller than the Spanish galleons, but faster and more heavily armed. In a nine-day battle they inflicted terrible losses on the enemy. The ships that escaped ran into bad weather and only a few returned to Spain. English ships then carried the war to Spain. When the struggle endedafter the deaths of both Elizabeth and Philipno Spanish fleet dared to contest Englands command of the seas. Englands Golden Age The most splendid period of English literature, called the Elizabethan Age, began in the later years of Elizabeths reign. Francis Bacon, writer of the Essays, was one of the queens lawyers. Edmund Spenser wrote The Faerie Queene in her honor. Shakespeare acted before her; but at the time of her death he had not yet written most of his great tragedies. Elizabeth enjoyed plays, but there is no evidence that she appreciated Shakespeares genius. Elizabeth was 55 years old when the Spanish Armada was defeated. Her joy in the victory was soon followed by grief, because her great favorite, Leicester, died a few months later. In 1598 her faithful minister Lord Burleigh passed away. In her court appeared young menSir Walter Raleigh, brilliant and adventurous, and the earl of Essex, a handsome young soldier. Essex fell from favor and Elizabeth had him executed for trying to stir up a rebellion against her. She died two years later, in 1603, at the age of 69, and was buried with great magnificence in Westminster Abbey. Mary Stuarts son, James VI of Scotland, was proclaimed James I of England, thus uniting the crowns of the two kingdoms. The things we think of chiefly as marking the reign of Elizabeth are the religious question, the defeat of the Spanish Armada, and the flourishing of literature. Also important, however, were hundreds of laws on shipping, commerce, industry, currency reform, roads, poor relief, and agriculture. These laws shaped the policy of England for more than two centuries after Elizabeths reign had ended. Aztecs The Aztec Indians, who are known for their domination of southern and central Mexico, ruled between the 14th and 16th centuries. Their name is derived from Azatlan, the homeland of the north. The Aztecs also call themselves Mexica and there language came from the Nahuatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Aztecs were formed after the Toltec civilization occurred when hundreds of civilians came towards Lake Texcoco. Late families were unfortunate and were forced to go to the swamp lands. In the swamp lands there was only one piece of land to farm on and it was totally surrounded by more marshes. The Aztec families some how converted these disadvantages to a might empire known as they Aztec Empire. People say the empire was partially formed by a deeply believed legend. As the legend went it said that Aztec people would create a empire on in a swampy place where they would see an eagle eating a snake while perched on a cactus which is growing out of a rock in the swamplands. This i s what priests claimed they saw while entering the new land. By the year 1325 their capital city was finished. They called it Tenochtitlan. In the capital city aqueducts (piping) were constructed, bridges were built, and chinapas were made. Chinapas were little islands formed by piled up mud. On these chinapas Aztecs grew corn, beans, chili peppers, squash, tomatoes, and tobacco. Tenochtitlan (the capital city) was covered in giant religious statues in order to pay their respects to the gods. In the Aztec religion numerous gods controlled an Aztecs daily life. Some of these gods include: Uitzilpochtli (the sun god), Coyolxauhqui (the moon goddess), Tlaloc (the rain god), and Quetzalcoatl (the inventor of the calendar and writing). Another part of the Aztec religion was human sacrifices. For their sacrifices the priest would lay the man or woman over a convex (rounded) stone, and then he would take a sharp knife and cut the victims heart out. They did this because they believed that good gods could prevent bad gods from doing evil things and they also believed that good gods got their strength from human blood and hearts so they had sacrifices in order to keep their gods strong. For major rituals warriors were sacrificed, for the warrior this was one of the greatest honors and for minor rituals prisoners were used. In an Aztec marriage the grooms shirt is tied to the brides dress in order to express their bonding and after the wedding incents were burned for 4 days before proceeding with the marriage. In 1519 Hernando Cortes, a Spanish explorer, led over 500 men into Aztec territory to search for gold. Aztecs thought he was a representative for a certain white skinned god so they respected him. It all changed when the Aztecs saw that Hernando was melting down their golden statues and shipping them back to Spain. The Aztecs decided to attack Hernando and his men. The Aztecs were successful and drove the Spanish away. In 1520 the Spanish attacked the Aztecs capit al city and destroyed their civilization. That was the end of the Aztecs mighty empire had built so long ago. Spanish Inquisition The Inquisition was a religious movement to find and give punishment to heretics . The word inquisition comes from the word inquisitio, or inquest. The word inquisitio refers to the legal process that named the tribunals. It involved finding and interrogating suspects of crimes under oath to tell the truth. Some would condemn themselves. This method of finding heretics worked very well with the Waldensians and the Cathars. In France, the Templars were persecuted by the Inquisitors. In the year 392 A.D. the Roman Emperor Thodosius I outlawed every religion that was not Christian or Jewish. After he declared that, heresy became not only a religious offense, but also a civil one. Heretics began revolting quite frequently in the eleven and twelve hundreds, so the Church took over the job of finding and punishing heretics. In 1231, a special court was created by Pope Gregory IV to demand that all heretics become Christians. The Congregation of the Holy Office took control of the Inquisiti on in 1542. The judges for the Inquisition were almost all Dominican and Franciscan friars. The Inquisition took place mostly in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. It did take place in other countries, but not as commonly. The investigations were in secret and almost all of the inquisitors abused their powers. Most Inquisitors were Dominican monks, appointed by the head of the Inquisition. Inquisitors and judges of the Inquisition could be compared to the prosecutors and judges of todays courts, to use an analogy. The inquisitor-general would appoint tribunals. Tribunals are groups of inquisitors. During an inquisition, two inquisitors, who traveled together, would call out to a town, city, or village for confessions. Only males under age fourteen and females under age twelve would not be considered as heretics. Questions would be asked of those accused in the local language. The answers were written down by scribes in Latin. The accused would never be defended by anyone, because th en the defender would be thought to be a heretic. The accused ones would not even know who had accused them. Judgments were given on Sundays, in a sermon. Punishment could range from death to paying a fine. Usually heretics were killed. The Inquisition in England was strengthened when the Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation was started. It was to prevent more conversion the Protestantism and to clean up the church. The sale of indulgences was no longer permitted. It was completely done away with. Fear of the Inquisition was also used to discourage becoming Protestant and abandoning Catholicism, for fear of being tried as a heretic. In the fifteen hundreds, the Inquisition was used by the Catholic church against Protestants. Also from the Counter-Reformation came the Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, which was a group of powerful missionaries. During the Spanish Inquisition alone, from 1478 to 1834, thousands of people were tortured and killed. The person resp onsible for the death of over two thousand Spaniards was Tomas de Torquemanda. He was the leader of the Spanish Inquisition for fifteen years, from 1483 to 1498. He created the rules and precedents of inquisitorial procedure. He formed branches of the Inquisition in many major cities. When the Spanish Inquisition got out of hand, the Church tried to stop it but they could not halt it. The Spanish Inquisition ran its reign of terror from 1478 to 1834. It was said by Mark in Mark 4:22 that Jesus said, For there is nothing to be hid, except to be made manifest, nor is anything secret, except to come to light. The death of all those innocents was something that the Church had tried to hide. They would be imprisoned for days, months, even years, after one hearing, some to finally be tortured to death. The prisoners would have moldy food and stale water, along with cockroaches and other vermin, to keep them company in the dark. As mentioned earlier, suspected heretics were interrogated. T he term should be tortured, in innumerable cases. The inquisitors tortured prisoners to coerce them to confess. There were many ways that heretics would be tortured. Many were very gruesome. Torture has been used by many societies, in all times and places, even now. One method of torture was the use of pear-shaped devices that were forced into the mouth, anus, or vagina and then expanded, by way of mechanical devices, to thereby expand the body cavity. This would irreparably damage the tissues, because each pair had points on it. Almost everyone would die after having this done to them. One other way of persuading heretics to confess was Squassation. This was through use of the Strappardo. This was done by tying the victims hands behind their back and lifting them into the air by their wrists, while having heavy weights attached to their ankles or testicles. Then, they would be dropped almost to the ground and jerked to a stop. This would often dislocate the arms and cause much dama ge to the body part of which the weights were attached. People would be mock-crucified also, by being nailed to a door in the manner of crucifixion. The door would then be swung back and forth or slammed shut quickly. Some heretics were given the water torture, which consisted of forcing the person to drink water through a funnel until they died or confessed. Heretics were also be burned to death on stakes. Some were killed by being put in an oven and being roasted. If suspected heretics would not confess to heresy, then they would often be burned at the stake. In 1224, Frederick II made it a law that heretics must die by fire. One of the worst times in the Inquisition was in the sixteen hundreds. During that period, anything bad that happened could be blamed on witches. Neighbors would accuse each other of being witches over soured milk, lice, and any other minor problem that would occur. If a person said that they didnt believe in witches or demons, then they would be accused of b eing a witch or a heretic. Torture has been proven to be an ineffective method of getting the truth out of someone. A person in great pain might admit to anything, even if innocent. One Templar who had been tortured said, Under such torture, I would have confessed to killing God. Guilds Guilds were created in the Middle Ages and were groups of people with a common interest in a certain trade. There were many different types of guilds varying from religious and social guilds to crafts and carpentry guilds. The main purposes of these guilds were to prevent individual businesses from controlling all of the business of a certain trade. This proved profitable for the smaller businesses. Individuals who refused to join the guild of their profession were forced to leave the town. Guilds also had their own specific coat of arms and badges for members. Craft guilds, comprised of bakers, goldsmiths, tailors, weavers, boatmen, and other craft workers, created rules to protect members of the guilds. Perhaps the most important of the above guilds were those of the boatmen, which were in the coastal port cities. The merchants guilds created rules that set a standard on prices of their products. The members could not sell discounted items to people who were not members of the guil d. They also set standards on the quality of their goods and agreed on wages for their workers. To become part of a guild, workers went through an initiation ceremony and other rites. These rites were known as collegia. Being a member of a guild had some advantages. Along with a membership, the workers received assistance from the guild when it was needed. The guild helped members with charity, funeral ceremonies, prayers for the dead, and provided other services for the members in their times of need. The guilds built halls and market places and helped with church and town projects. all of their crafts and creations were of great quality. If a member of the guild made an item of poor quality he was punished with fines. If he continued to make the crafts with the same quality he would be expelled from the guild. The craft workers who became very successful in their trade and who owned their own shops became the masters of the guild. Craft workers who did not fully master their trade , or did not run their own shops were the journeymen. The journeymen worked in the shops of the masters everyday and received pay from them. Young men who were learning certain trades became known as apprentices and received housing and meals from their master. After about two to seven years, an apprentice could become a journeyman. Journeymen who wanted to become masters had to show evidence of great skill. He also had to pass an examination or make a product in his craft. The product would then be judged by the other masters belonging to his guild. If the product was considered a masterpiece, the journeyman would become a master. Because it soon became more and more difficult for people to become masters, journeymen soon created their own associations. They separated from their masters because their needs were not being met and this angered the masters. The masters tried to fight back by securing the passage of laws prohibiting them. They were defeated most of the time by the guil ds, its members and officials in the town. Merchants and craftsmen had great honor in their trade. This caused them to make their products with nothing but the best and because of their quality crafts, they took in great amounts of money. If the lord of the town was in need of money, he would made the merchants and craftsmen feel obligated to donate their money by making them feel guilty and selfish. Many times, merchants were robbed on their journeys and within the towns they sold their items. Sometimes merchants were falsely accused of owing other merchants and people money. If he did not belong to a guild, it was his word against theirs. If he did belong to a guild, the members supported him. Because of the danger on the merchants journey, caravans, or groups of merchants which traveled together, soon developed. Cities developed around areas which contained items or food of value and where it was convenient for merchants to carry to and then sell their items. Guild halls were bui lt as a meeting house for medieval craft and trade guilds to meet. The guild hall in London, known as the Council Hall, is famous for its great hall and crypt. Other countries, such as Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, have excellent examples of Guild halls. The Lord Mayor of Londons banquet is held annually at the Guild hall in London. Because guilds became so popular and large, they became powerful in the government of the towns. When guilds needed permission to do something from their lord, they had to have the lord write his promise down and then it would be locked up safely in a strong chest in their Guild hall. This promise was called a charter. Guilds continued to increase their power by asking the lord for charters and were soon able to run a small portion of the town. They asked for a charter to allow them to appoint men to govern the town rather than the lords bailiff. Usually in return for this allowance, the guild had to pay a fixed rent each year. When they were allowed this, the guild was in charge of most of the town. As if the guilds were not complex and powerful enough, they decided to create associations of guilds, which controlled common foreign markets. Some examples of these associations are the League of the Flemish cities, concerned with the English wool trade. The association of North German cities, known as the Hanseatic League, controlled trades on the Baltic and North Seas. By the 1300s, guilds began to lose their protection and democratic sides. Guild membership began to pass down through the generations from father to son. This made it more difficult for new members to join the guilds. The increase of capitalistic industry was responsi Historical People and Events Historical People and Events Joan of Arc Joan of Arc is a national heroine of France honored and respected by everyone. She was an illiterate peasant girl who rose to the ranks of leading French armies to victory against England until her capture when she was only 19 years old. She was executed as a heretic in a politically motivated trial. Twenty four years later the Catholic Church declared her innocence and she was canonized as a saint in 1920. She was born in a time when France and England were at war. The Armagnacs and the Burgundians were two French factions at war with each other. By 1484 England was occupying Northern France. The English began a siege of Orleans. Her parents were Jacques dArc and Isabelle Rome. Her father was a farmer and a minor village official. She got her first visions at the age of 12 where St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret told her to expel the English. She obtained an interview with the royal French court where she predicted about military reverses of the English near Orleans. She was responsible for pursuing an aggressive offensive strategy by the French army in the siege of Orleans. The defeat of English led to the capture of Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire, Beaugency and annihilated the English army at the battle of Patay. A truce was signed between the two French factions following the arrival of the French army at Reims. The agreement was broken by Duke Philip. A French advance towards Paris was put off after an order to withdraw. Joan was captured on May 1430 following a skirmish with the English. She was put on trial for heresy in a politically motivated trial. She had supported the other side in France. She was executed for heresy. The inquisitors who interviewed her could not find any evidence of heresy and were convinced of her innocent. The priests who had put her on trial were forced and intimidated by the English government to pronounce heresy. Joan of Arc is honored and revered as a heroine throughout her life and beyond. The French military was inspir ed by her use of artillery and frontal tactics in warfare. Legends have survived about her legacy. The best known is that she did not feel pain during her execution. She is also believed to have died peacefully. She rose to prominence from an illiterate peasant girl to an inspiration for the French military. She gave hope to a discredited regime and inspired the French people to fight a popular war of national liberation. Joan of Arc expelled women from the French army and did not believe in feminism. She has been a political symbol ever since her death. The Vichy government, French resistance, liberals, conservatives, etc have all used her for their political purposes. Many people have studied about the religious visions of Joan. Most people believe in the sincerity of her faith. They consider it to be divine inspiration. Documents which detail about her visions are vague and possibly some fabrications have been added. Some researchers have tried to explain her visions in the form of neurological or psychiatric terms. This view has been opposed by many historians on grounds that hallucinations and hearing voices does not necessarily point to mental illness. Further a person with such lifestyle like Joan would have found it hard to maintain if she had a serious disease. The court of King Charles VII was highly skeptical and shrewd with regards to mental illness. His own father suffered from insanity and under him France began a long decline. Her boldness and physical rigor of her military career counters the theory that she suffered from any cognitive impairment. Joan of Arc remains a popular heroine and political symbol in France. She passionately pursued a national war of liberation and inspired the French to regain hope. She was sincere in faith. Her sincerity and legacy remain stronger than ever even after her death more than five hundred years ago. Johannes Gutenberg Gutenberg was a German Printer, and Pioneer in the use of movable type, he was sometimes identified as the first European to print with hand-set type cast and molds. Although he was not the only person working on the printing press, he was considered to be the main part of it. Gutenbergs name does not appear on any of the works attributed to him, but historical records have given evidence that he is indeed the one who printed them. Johannes Gutenberg was born in 1397. He was born into a noble family in the city of Mainz, a mining town, in Southern Germany. His father was Friele Gansfleisch, his mother was Else Wyrich. His early training was as a goldsmith and an inventor. In 1428, he moved to Strasbourg for political reasons. He remained there for over twenty years. It was in Strasbourg that he made his first experiments with movable type. Gutenberg had the idea of modernizing techniques of metalworking, such as casting, punch-cutting, and stamping, for the mass production of books. Gutenberg became more and more intrigued by these subjects, which led to further experiments with movable type. He started to experiment with metal molds, alloys, special presses, and oil based inks. Little did he know that this experimentation, with a little increased work, would remain the main type of printing until the late twentieth century. In 1438 Gutenberg entered into a partnership with Andreas Dritzehn to conduct experiments in printing. Gutenberg taught Dritzehn about what he had learned dealing with movable type. In about 1450 Gutenberg returned to Mainz, where he formed yet another partnership with a German merchant and a money lender by the name of Johann Fust. With the money that he borrowed from Fust, Gutenberg was able to open up a press where he did additional research and experiments with movable type. It was sometime between 1450 and 1456 that Gutenberg set to work, and completed, a forty- two line Bible (it was 42 lines per page). The bible was referred to as th e Gutenberg Bible, also known as the Mazarine Bible, or the 42-lined bible. Today there is only 47 extant copies, the most widely known presently was acquired by the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Only two other perfect copies of the Gutenberg Bible are known to exist today. The Gutenberg Bible was widely known for its beauty and elegance. A German printer, Peter Schoffer, Fusts son-in-law, and Gutenbergs apprentice helped to print the work of the Bible. Gutenbergs main goal was to mechanically reproduce medieval liturgical manuscripts without taking away their color or design. In 1455 Fust demanded that Gutenberg repay the money that was invested in the business. This dispute resulted in a lawsuit in which Gutenberg abandoned his claims to his invention and gave up his stocks. Even though he had a dispute with Fust, Gutenberg continued his work with printing. During the years following the dispute and lawsuit Gutenberg printed several small but popular items such as calend ars, but in 1458 Gutenberg printed another bible, only this one was the 36 line Bible. Gutenberg began to re-establish his printing press company with the help of a man named Conrad Humery. At around 1460 Gutenberg was able to print the Missale speciale constantiense as well as the Catholicon. Gutenbergs press was made up of characters of equal height, and these characters were printed on hand-made paper. His press involved a mold that had the outlines of letters and other characters stamped into it. Letters of type could be produced quickly by pouring liquid metal into the pre-made molds. These stamped and molded letters were then put together to make pages of printing. Gutenbergs accomplishments with movable type made book production more economically possible, and easier to produce literature quicker. The new innovations in the printing press opened new possibilities for German literature. The printing press allowed an easier exchange of ideas throughout Europe and helped spread the ideas of the Renaissance. As more productions of literature occurred, more different languages were also printed out. Gutenbergs invention brought the printed word to a wider audience, altering history with its big impact on literacy and education. Before books were able to be printed with the printing press people had to believe what they heard from other people. They werent able to rely on what they read from history books or other sources of information. Before the printing press was invented, making books was a long and hard process, and the books that were produced were extremely costly. The printing press provided a practical and inexpensive way to produce literature. It was a particularly valuable invention, and it made a great contribution to the world. With the invention of the printing press reading and writing were no longer restricted to religious things, or to the rich. People soon learned to question the authority of the ruling class, which was also part of the spr ead of the Renaissance. The printing press sparked an enlightenment and widespread access and appreciation for classical art and literature. These new appreciations developed a new passion among people for artistic self expression. Without the printing press, the Renaissance may never have occurred. Queen Elizabeth I Elizabeths Childhood and Youth Elizabeth was born near London on Sept. 7, 1533. Her father was Henry VIII, bluff King Hal. Her mother was Anne Boleyn, the second of Henrys six wives. Henrys first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had only one surviving child, Mary. Henry wanted a male heir, so he asked the pope to annul the marriage. Because the pope refused, Henry broke away from the Roman Catholic church and set himself up as head of the church in England. Then he married Anne. He was disappointed that Annes child also was a girl. Before Elizabeth was 3 years old, he had her mother beheaded. Henry gave Elizabeth a house of her own in the country. He paid little attention to her, and her governess complained that the princess hath neither gown, nor kirtle, nor petticoat. Henry provided excellent tutors, however, and Elizabeth showed a love for learning. One of her tutors, Roger Ascham, wrote: Her perseverance is equal to that of a man, and her memory long keeps what it quickly picks up. Sh e talks French and Italian as well as she does English. When she writes Greek and Latin, nothing is more beautiful than her handwriting. She delights as much in music as she is skillful in it. Henrys third wife, Jane Seymour, gave birth to a son, Edward. Henry died when Edward was 10 years old, and the boy came to the throne as Edward VI. Elizabeth and Edward were both brought up in Henrys new church. Their half sister Mary was brought up a Roman Catholic. When Edward died in 1553, Mary became queen and at once made Catholicism the state religion. Mary suspected Elizabeth of plotting with the Protestants to gain the throne and had her imprisoned for two months in the Tower of London. When Mary died, there were two claimants to the throne. If Elizabeth did not succeed, the next heir was Mary Stuart of Scotland, a Catholic. Mary Stuart was about to be married to the dauphin Francis of France. If she won the throne of England, both Scotland and England would be joined to France. Philip II of Spain, though a Catholic, threw his influence on the side of Elizabeth because he was jealous of Frances power. Later the Spanish ambassador hinted to Elizabeth that she owed her throne to Philip. Elizabeth replied that she owed it to her people. She is very much wedded to her people, the ambassador wrote, and thinks as they do. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, she rode at once to London from her country home, traveling in a slow procession to give the people a chance to see her. Guns boomed, bells rang, and the people cheered her and scattered flowers in her path. At the beginning of her reign England was in despair. The country had been weakened by war and religious strife, and the treasury was empty. Spain and France were powerful, and both wanted to rule England. The people hoped their young queen would soon marry a strong man who would guide her. But Elizabeth at once took the government into her own hands; and, though she had many suitors and close friendships with several men, she steadfastly refused to marry. The young queen chose as her chief minister Sir William Cecil (Lord Burghley), who was cautious and conservative like herself. For 40 years he was her mainstay in both home and foreign affairs. Her favorite courtier was the charming and handsome Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. When she died at the age of 69, she was still called the Virgin Queen. By then rich and secure, England was enjoying its greatest literary period. English ships were sailing into all seas, and the island kingdom had begun to establish its position as a world leader. In religious matters Elizabeth steered a middle course between the extreme Protestants and the Catholics. She restored the Protestant service but retained many features of Catholicism, including bishops and archbishops. She hoped this compromise would produce unity in the state; but the Catholics, who formed a majority of her subjects, were not reconciled. From time to time some of them plotted with Spain or France to put Mary Stuart on the throne in place of Elizabeth. France and Spain were rivals, and Elizabeth was usually able to play one off against the other. She even used courtship as part of her diplomatic game. She refused to marry Philip II of Spain but held out hopes to more than one of his royal relatives when France seemed to threaten. Later, when Philip turned against England, Elizabeth encouraged French princes. To cut Scotlands ties with France, she gave secret help to the Scottish Presbyterians. She also aided the Protestant Netherlands when they revolted against Spain. Mary Stuart returned to Scotland in 1561 after the death of her husband, Francis, king of France. In 1568 she was compelled to flee across the English border to ask Elizabeths help. Elizabeth kept her a prisoner for 19 years. Finally Mary was accused of having a part in the so-called Babington plot to assassinate Elizabeth. Parliament demanded her execution. Elizabeth signed the warrant; and Mary Stuart was beheaded in 1587. In the last years of Elizabeths reign, Catholics were cruelly persecuted and many were put to death. Defeat of the Spanish Armada During the first 30 years of Elizabeths reign England was at peace. Commerce revived, and English ships were boldly venturing across the seas to the West Indies. There they came into conflict with Spain and Portugal, which owned and ruled the whole New World and claimed a monopoly of trade. English smugglers broke through the blockade and made huge profits by selling, in the West Indies, blacks they had seized in Africa. John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, and other English seamen also waylaid Spanish ships on their way home and seized their gold. Elizabeth aided the English privateers with ships and money and shared in their profits and stolen treasure. Philip II finally decided to put an end to these attacks by invading and conquering England. After years of preparation, Philip assembled a great fleet of his best and largest w arships, called by the Spanish the Armada (that is, fleet). In 1588 the Armada sailed into the English Channel. The English were waiting for them and at once put out to sea. Their ships were of newer design, smaller than the Spanish galleons, but faster and more heavily armed. In a nine-day battle they inflicted terrible losses on the enemy. The ships that escaped ran into bad weather and only a few returned to Spain. English ships then carried the war to Spain. When the struggle endedafter the deaths of both Elizabeth and Philipno Spanish fleet dared to contest Englands command of the seas. Englands Golden Age The most splendid period of English literature, called the Elizabethan Age, began in the later years of Elizabeths reign. Francis Bacon, writer of the Essays, was one of the queens lawyers. Edmund Spenser wrote The Faerie Queene in her honor. Shakespeare acted before her; but at the time of her death he had not yet written most of his great tragedies. Elizabeth enjoyed plays, but there is no evidence that she appreciated Shakespeares genius. Elizabeth was 55 years old when the Spanish Armada was defeated. Her joy in the victory was soon followed by grief, because her great favorite, Leicester, died a few months later. In 1598 her faithful minister Lord Burleigh passed away. In her court appeared young menSir Walter Raleigh, brilliant and adventurous, and the earl of Essex, a handsome young soldier. Essex fell from favor and Elizabeth had him executed for trying to stir up a rebellion against her. She died two years later, in 1603, at the age of 69, and was buried with great magnificence in Westminster Abbey. Mary Stuarts son, James VI of Scotland, was proclaimed James I of England, thus uniting the crowns of the two kingdoms. The things we think of chiefly as marking the reign of Elizabeth are the religious question, the defeat of the Spanish Armada, and the flourishing of literature. Also important, however, were hundreds of laws on shipping, commerce, industry, currency reform, roads, poor relief, and agriculture. These laws shaped the policy of England for more than two centuries after Elizabeths reign had ended. Aztecs The Aztec Indians, who are known for their domination of southern and central Mexico, ruled between the 14th and 16th centuries. Their name is derived from Azatlan, the homeland of the north. The Aztecs also call themselves Mexica and there language came from the Nahuatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Aztecs were formed after the Toltec civilization occurred when hundreds of civilians came towards Lake Texcoco. Late families were unfortunate and were forced to go to the swamp lands. In the swamp lands there was only one piece of land to farm on and it was totally surrounded by more marshes. The Aztec families some how converted these disadvantages to a might empire known as they Aztec Empire. People say the empire was partially formed by a deeply believed legend. As the legend went it said that Aztec people would create a empire on in a swampy place where they would see an eagle eating a snake while perched on a cactus which is growing out of a rock in the swamplands. This i s what priests claimed they saw while entering the new land. By the year 1325 their capital city was finished. They called it Tenochtitlan. In the capital city aqueducts (piping) were constructed, bridges were built, and chinapas were made. Chinapas were little islands formed by piled up mud. On these chinapas Aztecs grew corn, beans, chili peppers, squash, tomatoes, and tobacco. Tenochtitlan (the capital city) was covered in giant religious statues in order to pay their respects to the gods. In the Aztec religion numerous gods controlled an Aztecs daily life. Some of these gods include: Uitzilpochtli (the sun god), Coyolxauhqui (the moon goddess), Tlaloc (the rain god), and Quetzalcoatl (the inventor of the calendar and writing). Another part of the Aztec religion was human sacrifices. For their sacrifices the priest would lay the man or woman over a convex (rounded) stone, and then he would take a sharp knife and cut the victims heart out. They did this because they believed that good gods could prevent bad gods from doing evil things and they also believed that good gods got their strength from human blood and hearts so they had sacrifices in order to keep their gods strong. For major rituals warriors were sacrificed, for the warrior this was one of the greatest honors and for minor rituals prisoners were used. In an Aztec marriage the grooms shirt is tied to the brides dress in order to express their bonding and after the wedding incents were burned for 4 days before proceeding with the marriage. In 1519 Hernando Cortes, a Spanish explorer, led over 500 men into Aztec territory to search for gold. Aztecs thought he was a representative for a certain white skinned god so they respected him. It all changed when the Aztecs saw that Hernando was melting down their golden statues and shipping them back to Spain. The Aztecs decided to attack Hernando and his men. The Aztecs were successful and drove the Spanish away. In 1520 the Spanish attacked the Aztecs capit al city and destroyed their civilization. That was the end of the Aztecs mighty empire had built so long ago. Spanish Inquisition The Inquisition was a religious movement to find and give punishment to heretics . The word inquisition comes from the word inquisitio, or inquest. The word inquisitio refers to the legal process that named the tribunals. It involved finding and interrogating suspects of crimes under oath to tell the truth. Some would condemn themselves. This method of finding heretics worked very well with the Waldensians and the Cathars. In France, the Templars were persecuted by the Inquisitors. In the year 392 A.D. the Roman Emperor Thodosius I outlawed every religion that was not Christian or Jewish. After he declared that, heresy became not only a religious offense, but also a civil one. Heretics began revolting quite frequently in the eleven and twelve hundreds, so the Church took over the job of finding and punishing heretics. In 1231, a special court was created by Pope Gregory IV to demand that all heretics become Christians. The Congregation of the Holy Office took control of the Inquisiti on in 1542. The judges for the Inquisition were almost all Dominican and Franciscan friars. The Inquisition took place mostly in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. It did take place in other countries, but not as commonly. The investigations were in secret and almost all of the inquisitors abused their powers. Most Inquisitors were Dominican monks, appointed by the head of the Inquisition. Inquisitors and judges of the Inquisition could be compared to the prosecutors and judges of todays courts, to use an analogy. The inquisitor-general would appoint tribunals. Tribunals are groups of inquisitors. During an inquisition, two inquisitors, who traveled together, would call out to a town, city, or village for confessions. Only males under age fourteen and females under age twelve would not be considered as heretics. Questions would be asked of those accused in the local language. The answers were written down by scribes in Latin. The accused would never be defended by anyone, because th en the defender would be thought to be a heretic. The accused ones would not even know who had accused them. Judgments were given on Sundays, in a sermon. Punishment could range from death to paying a fine. Usually heretics were killed. The Inquisition in England was strengthened when the Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation was started. It was to prevent more conversion the Protestantism and to clean up the church. The sale of indulgences was no longer permitted. It was completely done away with. Fear of the Inquisition was also used to discourage becoming Protestant and abandoning Catholicism, for fear of being tried as a heretic. In the fifteen hundreds, the Inquisition was used by the Catholic church against Protestants. Also from the Counter-Reformation came the Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, which was a group of powerful missionaries. During the Spanish Inquisition alone, from 1478 to 1834, thousands of people were tortured and killed. The person resp onsible for the death of over two thousand Spaniards was Tomas de Torquemanda. He was the leader of the Spanish Inquisition for fifteen years, from 1483 to 1498. He created the rules and precedents of inquisitorial procedure. He formed branches of the Inquisition in many major cities. When the Spanish Inquisition got out of hand, the Church tried to stop it but they could not halt it. The Spanish Inquisition ran its reign of terror from 1478 to 1834. It was said by Mark in Mark 4:22 that Jesus said, For there is nothing to be hid, except to be made manifest, nor is anything secret, except to come to light. The death of all those innocents was something that the Church had tried to hide. They would be imprisoned for days, months, even years, after one hearing, some to finally be tortured to death. The prisoners would have moldy food and stale water, along with cockroaches and other vermin, to keep them company in the dark. As mentioned earlier, suspected heretics were interrogated. T he term should be tortured, in innumerable cases. The inquisitors tortured prisoners to coerce them to confess. There were many ways that heretics would be tortured. Many were very gruesome. Torture has been used by many societies, in all times and places, even now. One method of torture was the use of pear-shaped devices that were forced into the mouth, anus, or vagina and then expanded, by way of mechanical devices, to thereby expand the body cavity. This would irreparably damage the tissues, because each pair had points on it. Almost everyone would die after having this done to them. One other way of persuading heretics to confess was Squassation. This was through use of the Strappardo. This was done by tying the victims hands behind their back and lifting them into the air by their wrists, while having heavy weights attached to their ankles or testicles. Then, they would be dropped almost to the ground and jerked to a stop. This would often dislocate the arms and cause much dama ge to the body part of which the weights were attached. People would be mock-crucified also, by being nailed to a door in the manner of crucifixion. The door would then be swung back and forth or slammed shut quickly. Some heretics were given the water torture, which consisted of forcing the person to drink water through a funnel until they died or confessed. Heretics were also be burned to death on stakes. Some were killed by being put in an oven and being roasted. If suspected heretics would not confess to heresy, then they would often be burned at the stake. In 1224, Frederick II made it a law that heretics must die by fire. One of the worst times in the Inquisition was in the sixteen hundreds. During that period, anything bad that happened could be blamed on witches. Neighbors would accuse each other of being witches over soured milk, lice, and any other minor problem that would occur. If a person said that they didnt believe in witches or demons, then they would be accused of b eing a witch or a heretic. Torture has been proven to be an ineffective method of getting the truth out of someone. A person in great pain might admit to anything, even if innocent. One Templar who had been tortured said, Under such torture, I would have confessed to killing God. Guilds Guilds were created in the Middle Ages and were groups of people with a common interest in a certain trade. There were many different types of guilds varying from religious and social guilds to crafts and carpentry guilds. The main purposes of these guilds were to prevent individual businesses from controlling all of the business of a certain trade. This proved profitable for the smaller businesses. Individuals who refused to join the guild of their profession were forced to leave the town. Guilds also had their own specific coat of arms and badges for members. Craft guilds, comprised of bakers, goldsmiths, tailors, weavers, boatmen, and other craft workers, created rules to protect members of the guilds. Perhaps the most important of the above guilds were those of the boatmen, which were in the coastal port cities. The merchants guilds created rules that set a standard on prices of their products. The members could not sell discounted items to people who were not members of the guil d. They also set standards on the quality of their goods and agreed on wages for their workers. To become part of a guild, workers went through an initiation ceremony and other rites. These rites were known as collegia. Being a member of a guild had some advantages. Along with a membership, the workers received assistance from the guild when it was needed. The guild helped members with charity, funeral ceremonies, prayers for the dead, and provided other services for the members in their times of need. The guilds built halls and market places and helped with church and town projects. all of their crafts and creations were of great quality. If a member of the guild made an item of poor quality he was punished with fines. If he continued to make the crafts with the same quality he would be expelled from the guild. The craft workers who became very successful in their trade and who owned their own shops became the masters of the guild. Craft workers who did not fully master their trade , or did not run their own shops were the journeymen. The journeymen worked in the shops of the masters everyday and received pay from them. Young men who were learning certain trades became known as apprentices and received housing and meals from their master. After about two to seven years, an apprentice could become a journeyman. Journeymen who wanted to become masters had to show evidence of great skill. He also had to pass an examination or make a product in his craft. The product would then be judged by the other masters belonging to his guild. If the product was considered a masterpiece, the journeyman would become a master. Because it soon became more and more difficult for people to become masters, journeymen soon created their own associations. They separated from their masters because their needs were not being met and this angered the masters. The masters tried to fight back by securing the passage of laws prohibiting them. They were defeated most of the time by the guil ds, its members and officials in the town. Merchants and craftsmen had great honor in their trade. This caused them to make their products with nothing but the best and because of their quality crafts, they took in great amounts of money. If the lord of the town was in need of money, he would made the merchants and craftsmen feel obligated to donate their money by making them feel guilty and selfish. Many times, merchants were robbed on their journeys and within the towns they sold their items. Sometimes merchants were falsely accused of owing other merchants and people money. If he did not belong to a guild, it was his word against theirs. If he did belong to a guild, the members supported him. Because of the danger on the merchants journey, caravans, or groups of merchants which traveled together, soon developed. Cities developed around areas which contained items or food of value and where it was convenient for merchants to carry to and then sell their items. Guild halls were bui lt as a meeting house for medieval craft and trade guilds to meet. The guild hall in London, known as the Council Hall, is famous for its great hall and crypt. Other countries, such as Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, have excellent examples of Guild halls. The Lord Mayor of Londons banquet is held annually at the Guild hall in London. Because guilds became so popular and large, they became powerful in the government of the towns. When guilds needed permission to do something from their lord, they had to have the lord write his promise down and then it would be locked up safely in a strong chest in their Guild hall. This promise was called a charter. Guilds continued to increase their power by asking the lord for charters and were soon able to run a small portion of the town. They asked for a charter to allow them to appoint men to govern the town rather than the lords bailiff. Usually in return for this allowance, the guild had to pay a fixed rent each year. When they were allowed this, the guild was in charge of most of the town. As if the guilds were not complex and powerful enough, they decided to create associations of guilds, which controlled common foreign markets. Some examples of these associations are the League of the Flemish cities, concerned with the English wool trade. The association of North German cities, known as the Hanseatic League, controlled trades on the Baltic and North Seas. By the 1300s, guilds began to lose their protection and democratic sides. Guild membership began to pass down through the generations from father to son. This made it more difficult for new members to join the guilds. The increase of capitalistic industry was responsi